🇸🇾 Syria · Ancient city
Tell Munbaqa
Early–Late Bronze Age (c.2400–1000 BCE) · Syrian Bronze Age (Ekalte)
Euphrates walled city 20 ha (2.5 km double wall, Ekalte Old Babylonian tablets) near Tabqa Lake.
🇸🇾 Syria · Tell
Tell Acharneh
Early Bronze Age to Hellenistic (c.3000–300 BCE) · Syrian EBA → Aramaean → Neo-Hittite fringe
Ghāb Orontes fortress tell 12 ha (EB glacis, Iron Age Aramaean town Tunip/Qarqar) in Ghāb swamp.
🇮🇶 Iraq · Ancient city
Hatra
Parthian to Sassanian (c.200 BCE–241 CE) · Parthian-Arab (Hatrene Aramaic) / Hellenistic influence
Fortified Parthian-Arab desert city (2nd c BCE–241 CE) with circular walls 6.4 km circuit resisting Trajan (117) and Septimius Severus (198).
🇮🇶 Iraq · Ancient city
Khorsabad (Dur-Sharrukin)
Neo-Assyrian (713–705 BCE construction and occupation only) · Assyrian
Short-lived Assyrian capital built 713–707 BCE by Sargon II as brand-new square city 1.628 km side with seven gates, 24 km walls, and palace on citadel.
🇹🇷 Turkey · Temple complex
Heraclea at Latmus Athena Temple — Endymion Mountain City Sanctuary
Hellenistic (300–150 BCE) foundation over Archaic · Hellenistic Lysimachan Heracleans with Karian memory
Athena peripteros 6×11 on cyclopean walled acropolis above Bafa Lake Endymion heroon.
🇹🇷 Turkey · Fortified city
Büyükkaya
Chalcolithic to Iron Age (c.5500 BCE–600 CE; Hittite capital eastern quarters) · Chalcolithic → Hittite Empire → Phrygian → Iron Age polity → Byzantine
Eastern citadel of Hittite Hattusa on Budaközü gorge — silos and Iron Age polity above Boğazköy.
🇧🇩 Bangladesh · Ancient city
Mahasthangarh (Ancient Pundranagara)
Mauryan 4th c BCE → Pala 12th c · Mauryan → Sunga → Gupta → Pala
Ancient Pundranagara — Mauryan–Pala fortified city (4th c BCE–13th c CE) on Karatoya at Mahasthangarh, 12 km north Bogra. 1.5 km rampart, citadel mound, 1928–29 P.C.
🇬🇹 Guatemala · Fortress
Mixco Viejo
Classic · Maya/Andean
Mixco Viejo — fortified hilltop twin capital.
🇳🇬 Nigeria · Ancient city
Daura Emirate – Hausa Foundation City
Hausa foundation (9th c CE – 1805 Fulani conquest; Bayajidda c. 900 CE) · Hausa (Bayajidda legend; Daurama matriarchal tradition)
Holiest Hausa city where Bayajidda legend says Daurama queen's serpent Sarki in Kusugu well was slain c. 900 CE founding Hausa Bakwai; 14th c mud walls 6.5 km with palace of Emir a...
🇳🇬 Nigeria · Fortified city
Katsina City Walls – 14 km Runded Earthwork
Hausa classical (c. 1100–1807 CE; Ganuwa built 13th–14th c) · Hausa (Katsina scholarly centre)
Seven-gate 14 km mud rampart enclosing 405 ha Hausa scholarly city of Gobarau minaret (14th c mudbrick tower 15 m, oldest multi-storey mud in West Africa), manuscript libraries and...
🇳🇬 Nigeria · Ancient city
Gobir (Al Kalawa) – Desert Capital Remains
Hausa–Gobir kingdom (c. 1450–1808 reform jihad; abandonment 1808) · Hausa-Gobir (king Bawa Jangwarzo, Yunfa vs Usman dan Fodio)
Final capital of animist Gobir kingdom at Al Kalawa, with 4.5 km desert mud walls and palace tell where Sultan Yunfa hosted then fought Usman dan Fodio before 1808 Sokoto jihad cap...
🇳🇬 Nigeria · Ancient city
Birnin Kebbi (Argungu) – Kebbi River Fort Town
Kebbi Kingdom (1515 Kebbi revolt from Songhai – 1808 Fulani) · Zarma–Hausa–Songhai (Kanta Kotal founder)
Rival capital to Songhai after Kebbi's 1515 revolt, Birnin Kebbi on Sokoto River with 5.8 km walls and citadel where Kanta's cavalry defeated Songhai at Surame aftermath; annual Ar...
🇳🇬 Nigeria · Fortified city
Kagara (Niger State) – Hill Fort Terraces
Niger–Benue hillfort tradition (c. 1300–1900 CE; peak 16th–18th c) · Gbagyi / Hausa (Kamberi hill peoples) / Fulani pressures
Inselberg hill fort above Kagara plain with laterite terraces 2 m high, boulder walls (2.1 km) and narrow cleft gates, iron smelting terraces and shrines of Gunnu hill peoples flee...
